Akuntansi International

Nama: Adiman

Kelas: 4EB22

NPM: 29210352

Akuntansi Internasional

Laporan dan Pengungkapan 

Perkembangan Pengungkapan.

Perbedaan nasional dalam pengungkapan umumnya didorong oleh perbedaan dalam tata kelola perusahaan dan keuangan.Di Amerika Serikat, Inggris dan negara-negara Anglo Amerika lainnya, pasar ekuitas menyediakan kebanyakan pendanaan yang dibutuhkan perusahaan sehingga menjadi sangat maju. Di pasar-pasar tersebut, kepemilikan cenderung tersebar luas di antara banyak pemegang saham dan perlindungan terhadap investor sangat ditekankan. Investor institusional memainkan peranan yang semakin penting di negara-negara ini, menuntut pengembalian keuangan dan nilai pemegang saham yang meningkat.

Di negara-negara lainnya (seperti Prancis, Jerman, Jepang, dan berbagai negara dengan pasar yang baru muncul), pemegang saham tetap terkonsentrasi dan bank secara tradisional telah menjadi sumber keuangan utama perusahaan. Pengungkapan publik kurang berkembang dalam semua pasar ini dan perbedaan yang besar dalam bobot informasi yang diberikan dengan besar pemegang saham dan kreditor yang berhubungan dengan publik mungkin diizinkan.

    Konsep – konsep pengungkapan

Konsep – konsep pengungkapan meliputi:

a)    Pengungkapan cukup adalah pengungkapan yang di wajibkan oleh standar akuntansi yangberlaku.

b)   Pengungkapan wajar merupakan konsep yang bersifat lebih positif, pengungkapan yang wajar merupakan tujuan etis agar dapat memberikan perlakuan yang sama dan bersifat umum bagi semua pemakai laporan keuangan.

c)     Pengungkapan Sukarela yaitu dalam hal ini Beberapa studi menunjukkan bahwa manajer memiliki dorongan untuk mengungkapkan informasi mengenai kinerja perusahaan saat ini dan saat mendatang secara sukarela. Dalam laporan terakhir, Badan Standar Akuntansi Keuangan (FASB) menjelaskan sebuah proyek FASB mengenai pelaporan bisnis yang mendukung pandangan bahwa perusahaan akan mendapatkan manfaat pasar modal dengan meningkatkan pengungkapan sukarelanya. Laporan ini berisi tentang bagaimana perusahaan dapat menggambarkan dan menjelaskan potensi investasinya kepada para investor.Sejumlah aturan, seperti aturan akuntansi dan pengungkapan, dan pengesahan oleh pihak ketiga (seperti auditing) dapat memperbaiki berfungsinya pasar. Aturan akuntansi mencoba mengurangi kemampuan manjer dalam mencatat transaksi-transaksi ekonomi dengan carayang tidak mewakili kepentingan terbaik pemegang saham. Aturan pengungkapan menetapkan ketentuan-ketentuan untuk memastikan bahwa para pemegang saham menerima informasi yang tepat waktu, lengkap dan akurat.Keuntungan dari pengungkapan tersebut mungkin menyangkut biaya transaksi yang lebih rendah dalam perdagangan sekuritas perusahaan, bunga yang lebih tinggi dari analisis keuangan dan investor, meningkatkan likuiditas saham dan biaya modal yang lebih rendah.

    Kebutuhan Pengaturan  Pengungkapan

Untuk melindungi investor, sebagaian besar bursa sekuritas menentukan laporan dan kebutuhan pengungkapan pada perusahaan domestik dan asing yang mencari akses untuk pasar mereka. Bursa saham dan pengaturan pemerintah secara membutuhkan perusahaan asing yang terdaftar untuk melengkapi semua informasi keuangan dan non-keuangan yang hampir sama seperti yang dibutuhkan untuk perusahaan domestik.

Bursa saham dan pengaturan pemerintah secara umum membutuhkan perusahaan asing yang terdaftar untuk melengkapi semua informasi keuangan dan non-keuangan yang hampir sama seperti yang dibutuhkan untuk perusahaan domestik. Perusahaan asing yang terdaftar secara umum memiliki fleksibilitas yang berhubungan dengan prinsip akuntansi yang mereka gunakan dan untuk sejumlah pengungkapan. Di kebanyakan negara, perusahaan asing yang terdaftar harus menyimpan dengan informasi bursa saham yang dibuat publik, mendistribusikan kepada pemegang saham, atau dicatat dengan pengaturan di pasar domestik.

Proteksi pemegang saham bermacam-macam diseluruh negara. Negara Anglo Amerika seperti Kanada, Inggris Raya, dan Amerika Serikat memberikan investor proteksi ekstensif dan ketat. Sebaliknya, proteksi pemegang saham kurang memberikan tekanan di bagian lain dunia.

Frost dan Lang membahas dua objek investor berorientasi pasar: pelindungan investor dan kualitas pasar.

a)    Proteksi Investor yaitu dalam hal ini Investor dijamin dengan informasi dengan informasi dan dilindungi dengan pelaksanaan dan pengawasan peraturan pasar. Kecurangan mencegah adanya penawaran publik, perdangan, pemilihan, dan sekuritas penawaran. Informasi keuangan dan non keuangan yang bisa dibandingkan telah ditemukan sehingga investor bisa membandingkan perusahaan area industri dan negara.

b)   Kualitas Pasar yaitu dalam hal Pasar adalah adil, tersusun, efesien, dan bebas dari penyalahgunaan dan perbuatan jahat. Keadilan pasar dipromosikan dengan akses informasi yang wajar dan kesempatan berdagang. Efesien pasar berkembang dengan meningkatkan likuiditas dan mengurangi biaya tansaksi. Kualitas pasar ditandai dengan kepercayaan investor dan mereka memfasilitasi pembentukan modal.

Fost dan lang juga mengulas empat prinsip pada investor yang berorientasi pasar yang harus dijalankan.

a)    Keefektifan biaya yaitu dalam hal ini Regulasi biaya pasar sebaiknya dibandingkan dengan keuntungan sekuritasnya.

b)   Fleksibilitas dan kebebasab pasar yaitu dalam hal ini Regulasi tidak seharusnya menghalangi kompetisi dan evolusi pasar.

c)    Laporan keuangan transparan dan pngungkapan menyuluruh

d)   Perlakuan setara perusahaan domestik dan asing

Seperti Frost dan Lang catat, proteksi investor mewajibkan bahwa investor menerima informasi secara berkala dan diproteksi dengan pengawasan dan pelaksanaan. Pengungkapan harus memadai supaya investor membandingkan perusahaan area industri dan negara. Lebih jauh lagi, pengungkapan yang menyeluruh dan dapat dipercaya akan meningkatkan kepercayaan investor, di mana meningkatkan likuiditas, mengurangi biaya transaksi, akan meningkatkan kualitas pasar secara keseluruhan.

    Pembahasan Laporan Keuangan SEC Amerika Serikat

SEC secara umum mewajibkan pendaftaran asing untuk melengkapi informasi keuangan yang pada hakikatnya sama dengan yangdibutuhkan perusahaan domestik. akan tetapi, laporan keuangan pendaftaran tidak harus disiapkan menurut GAAP Amerika Serikat jika mereka disajikan sesuai dengan prinsip lemabaga akuntansi secara menyeluruh dan dilengkapi dengan rekonsiliasi kuantitatif dengan pendapatan bersih GAAP Amerika Serikat, ekuitas pemegang saham, dan pendpatan per saham, jika secar material berbeda. Beberapa pengamat menyatakan bawha syarat laporan keuangan SEC bagi perusahaan asing menghalangi mereka dari pembuatan sekuritas mereka yang ada di Amerika serikat.

    B.       Praktik Pelaporan dan Pengungkapan

Praktik pengungkapan laporan tahunan memperlihatkan respons manajer terhadap kebutuhan pengaturan pengungkapan dan insentif mereka untuk menyediakan informasi laporan keuangan pengguna secara sukarela. Di belahan dunia, pengungkapan bermakna kecil dan pengawasan serta pelaksanaan sukarl\ela, karena manajer perusahaan tidak akan patuh dengan peraturan pengungkapan jika kepatuhan lebih menguras biaya daripada biaya non-kepatuhan yang diharapkan. Pada bagian ini akan meliputi tentang:

    Pengungkapan Informasi Progresif

Pengungkapan informasi adalah pertimbangan tinggi yang relevan di dalam kesetaraan pasar dunia. EU’s Fourth Directivemenyatakan bahwa laporan tahunan seharusnya menyertakan sebuah indikasi pengembangan perusahaan di masa depan.Dalam hal ini, istilah informasi progresifmeliputi:

a)    perkiraan pendapatan, laba (rugi), arus kas, pengeluaran modal, dan hal-hal keuangan lainnya;

b)   tujian informasi mengenai kinerja dan posisi ekonomi di masa depan yang tidak menentu daripada perkiraan menyangkut proyek, periode fiskal dan proyeksi jumlah;

c)    laporan dan program dan sasaran manajemen untuk usaha masa depan.

Ketiga kategori informasi progresif ini menjadi lebih umum sebagaimana kita berangkat dari (a) perkiraan, (b) informasi potensial (c) sasaran dan tujuan. Tujuan utama investor dan analisis tersebut adalah menilai pendapatan dan arus kas di masa depan, sangatlah masuk akal untuk menyakan apakah perusahaan menyediakan perkiraan informasi internal mereka sendiri seperti itu. Praktiknya tidaklah sangat biasa, khususnya perkiraan tepat, dan terarah. Alasannya adalah perkiraan bisa menjadi tidak bisa diandalkan karena mereka menggabungkan subjek-subjek yang memperkirakan peristiwa di masa depan yang belum pasti. Di Amerika serikat, perkara hukum yang potensial adalah alat utama menyediakan perkiraan keuangan. Akan tetapi, seperti yang bisa ditebak, format yang lebih samar dari informasi progresif lebih umum ada. Sebuah penelitian pada dua ratus perusahaan besar di prancis, jerman, jepang, inggris Raya, dan Amerika menemukan bahwa sebagian besar dari mereka mengungkap informasi sasaran dan tujuan manajemen.

    Pengungkapan Segmen

Investor dan analisis menuntut informasi hasil perusahaan industri dan segmen geografi usaha dan keuangan signifikan dan berkembang. Sebagai contoh, analis keuangan di Amerika Serikat secara konsisten meminta data laporan keuangan yang tidak banyak dipisahkan daripada yang ada sekarang. International Financial Reporting Standars (IFRS) mencakup laporan keuangansegmen yang sangat lengkap, seperti halnya standar akuntansi di berbagai negara. Pengungkapan segmen lebih membantu pengguna laporan keuangan untuk memahami bagaimana bagian-bagian perusahaan menata semuanya. Setelah itu, alur produk dan wilayah di dunia memiliki resiko yang beragam, pengembalian, dan kesempatan pemisahan jalur usaha dan area geografis harus membuat penilaian yang lebih terpapar tentang keseluruhan perusahaan.

    Pelaporan Pertanggungjawaban Sosial

Dengan terus meningkat perusahaan dituntut untuk memberikan jawaban secara luas mengenai “pemegang saham” pegawai, pelanggan, penyedian, pemerintah, kelompok aktivitas, dan masyarakat umum yang sangat berpengaruh daripada kemampuan perusahaan untuk menciptakan nilai ekonomi. Laporan pertanggungjawaban sosial mengacu pada pengukuran dan komunikasi informasi tentang pengaruh perusahaan terhadap kemakmuran pegawai, komunitas sosial dan lingkungan. Hal ini mencerminkan sebuah kepercayaan bahwa perusahaan bergantung pada pemegang saham dalam laporan tahunan kinerja terhadap lingkungan dan sosial mereka seperti halnya laporan keuangan yang mereka berikan kepada pemegang saham. Lebih penting lagi, seperti yang di umpamakan “apa yang bisa diukur, maka bisa diatur” laporan pertanggungjawabaan sosial adalah sebuah cara untuk menunjukkan sebagai perusahaan penduduk. “ketahanan” melaporkan bahwa kesatuan ekonomi, sosial, kinerja lingkungan, ditunjukkan sebagai “tiga dasar pelapor”. Pelaporan pertanggungjawaban sosial mengupas masalahnya sendiri. Di samping itu, pelaporan pertanggungjawaban sosial menjadi model di antara semua perusahaan besar multinasional.

    Pengungkapan Khusus Bagi Pengguna Laporan Keuangan Non-domestik Dan Prinsip Akuntansi Yang Diguanakan

Laporan tahunan bisa meliputi pengungkapan khusus untuk mengakomodasi pengguna laporan keuangan non-domestik. Pengungkapan tersebut meliputi :

a)    laporan ulang yang mudah tentang informasi keuangan ke dalam mata uang asing;

b)   pembahasan perbedaan antara prinsip akuntansi lainnya;

c)    posisi dan laporan keuangan utama dan beberapa ketetapan standar akuntansi yang kedua;

d)   sebuah laporan keuangan lengkap disiapkan yang berhubungan dengan ketetapan prinsip akuntansi kedua.

Di negara dimana bahasa inggris adalah bukan bahasa utama, banyak perusahaan yang menerjemahkan seluruh laporan keuangan mereka ke dalam bahasa inggris daripada bahasa negaranya. Juga, beberapa perusahaan mempersiapkan laporan keuangan yang sesuai dengan standar akuntansi lebih bisa diterima daripada standar domestik (utamanya IFRS atau GAAP AS), atau yang sesuai dengan standar domestik dan sesuai dengan ketetapan prinsip akuntansi yang kedua.

    Pengungkapan Pengelolah Perusahaan

Pengelolah perusahaan berhubungan denga sarana internal di mana perusahaan dijalankan atau dikendalikan tanggungjawab, akuntabilitas, hubungan di antara pemegang saham, anggota direksi, dan manajer yang disusun supaya mencapai sasaran perusahaan. Dengan kata lain, pengelolaan perusahaan adalah sistem di mana perusahaan diarahkan dan dikendalikan. Di antara pengelolaan perusahaan adalah hak dan perlakuan pemegang saham, pertanggungjawaban direksi, pengungkapan dan transparansi, dan peran pemegang saham.

Dallas memberikan sebuah rancangan kerja untuk memahami dan menilai pengelolaan perusahaan di sebuah negara. Empat komponen dari rancangan kerjanya adalah :

a)    Infrastruktur pasarmencakup pola kepemilikan, keleluasaan di mana perusahaan terdaftar di masyarakat, hak kepemilikan, dan pasar untuk pengendalian perusahaan.

b)   Lingkuan hukummeliputi sistem hukum dan hak pemegang saham dengan jelas diterangkan dan konsisten dan dikuatkan secara efektif.

c)    Lingkungan peraturanhampir mendekati lingkungan hukum. Agen pengaturan bertanggung jawab atas pengaturan pasar supaya  sesuai dengan hukum yang ada. Mereka memastikan aturan dan efisiensi pasar dan memperkuat ketentuan pengungkapan publik

d)   Infrasturktur informasibersinggungandengan standar akuntansi yang digunakan dan apakah hasil laporan keuangan akurat, lengkap, dan tepat waktu. Ini juga mencajup struktur profesi auditing dan standar profesional untuk praktik auditing dan standar profesional untuk praktik auditing dan kemandirian. Pengungkapan sesuai jadwal bisa diandalkan, informasi yang tersedian untuk publik membuat pemegang saham mampu menilai keefektifan pengelolah peusahaan dan jalan usahanya dan performa keuangannya.

Amerika Seikat, Inggris, dan Australia adalah negara maju yang membutuhkan daftar perusahaan untuk membuat pengungkapan pengelolaan perusahaan dalam laporan tahunan mereka. Eropa sekarang ini telah mengubah Fourth dan Seven Directivesupaya mewajibkan perusahaan dagang Eropa Go publicuntuk memberikan laporan pengelolaan perusahaan. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) mengeluarkan prinsip pengelolaanperusahaanyang tela direvisi tahun 2004, memaparkan enam prinsip dasar pengelolaan perusahaan. Pengungkapan dan transparansi dikupas pada prinsip kelima.Prinsip kelima OECD dalam pengungkapan dan transparansi pengelolaan perusahaan yaitu  Kerangka kerja pengelolaan perusahaan harus memastikan bahwa pengungkapan akurat dan tepat waktu dibuat untuk semua permasalahan menyangkut perusahaan, termasuk kondisi keuangan, performa, kepemilikan, dan pengelolaan perusahaan.

a)    Pengungkapan harus mencakup, tetapi tidak terbatas pada meteri informasi:

1)   Hasil keuangan dan usaha perusahaan.

2)   Sasaran perusahaan.

3)   Kepemilikan saham mayoritas dan hak voting.

4)   Kebijakan pembayaran gaji bagi anggota direksi dan eksekutif utama dan informasi mengenai anggota direksi, termasuk kelayakan mereka, proses pemilihan, kepemimpinan di perusahaan lainnya, dan apakan mereka dianggap independen oleh direksi.

5)   Tramsaksi dan pihak terkait.

6)   Faktor risiko terduga.

7)   Isu-isu menyangkut pegawai dan pemegang saham lainnya.

8)   Struktur dan kebijakan pemerintah, khususnya, isi dari hukum kebijakan perusahaan dan proses dimana hal ini diterapkan.

b)   Informasi harus disiapkan dan diungkapkan sesuai dengan standar kualitas tinggi akuntansi dan keuangan dan pengungkapan non-finansial.

c)    Audit tahunan harus dilaksanakan oleh pihak independen, kompeten, dan auditor bermutu dalam rangka untuk memberikan sebuah sasaran eksternal dan asuransi untuk direksi dan pemegang saham di mana laporan keuangan memperlihatkan kedudukan dan performa keuangan dengan wajar dari peruhaan dalam semua aspek.

d)   Auditor dari pihak luar sebaiknya bisa bertanggung jawab kepada pemegang saham dan perkewajiban perusahaan untuk bertindak sebagai profesional dalam melakukan audit.

e)    Saluran untuk menyebarkan informasi harus seimbang, tepat waktu, dan dapat diakses oleh pengguna dengan biaya efisien.

f)    Rancangan kerja pengelolaan perusahaan harus dilengkapi dengan sebuah pendekatan efektif yang mengarah dan mengangkat ketentuan analisis atau nasihat dari analis, broker,agen rating, dan lainnya, yang sesuai dengan keputusan investor, bebas dari permasalahan bunga yang mungkin membahayakan integritas analisis atau nasihat mereka.

    Pengungkapan dan Laporan Bisnis di Internet

World Wibe Webterus digunakan sebagai sebuah ruangan penyebaran informasi, dengan media cetak yang selalu mendapat peran kedua. Penyebaran informasi secara elektronik sering kali murah meriah dibandingkan dengan media cetak dan menawarkan komunikasi instan. Web juga bisa digunakan untuk meyebarkan informasi interaktif yang tidak serupa dengan media cetak. Keamanan berdagang menggunakan internet telah meningkatkan permintaan untuk bisnis dan pelaporan keuangan melalui Web. Investor sering menggunakan Web untuk berdagang dan mengambil keputusan investasi modal, dan menggunakan Web sebagai sebuah sarana informasi penting.

Bursa saham, pengatur, dan perusahaan publik terus menggunakan inernet untuk memberikan pengguna laporan keuangan dengan akses cepat untuk informasi perusahaan. Contoh, berita pertukaran saham sekarang lebih banyak menggunakan jasa elektronik untuk memberikan akses cepat bagi semua pengumuman dari perusahaan yang terdaftar. Semua layanan ini memberikan keuntungan penting bagi perusahaan dan investor yang terdaftar: semua pengumuman perusahaan yang terdaftar, tidak hanya untuk semua yang dianggap “berita berharga” oleh pers keuangan, diluncurkan kepada masyarakat dalam satu situs.

Semua pengungkapan dan pelaporan ini dipilih karena atas dasar kepentingan pengguna laporan keuangan.

    C.      Pengungkapan Laporan Tahunan Di Negara-Negara Pasar Berkembang

Pengungkapan laporan tahunan perusahaan di negara-negara pasar berkembang secara umum kurang ekstensif dan kurang kredibel dibandingkan dengan pelaporan perusahaan di negara-negara maju. Sebagai contoh, pengungkapan yang tidak cukup dan yang menyesatkan dan perlindungan konsumen yang terabaikan disebut-sebut sebagai penyebab krisis keuangan Asia Timur di tahun 1997.

Tingkat pengungkapan yang rendah di negara-negara pasar berkembang tersebut konsisten dengan sistem tata kelola perusahaan dan keuangan di negara-negara itu. Pasar ekuitas tidak terlalu berkembang, bank dan pihak internal seperti kelompok keluarga menyalurkan kebanyakan kebutuhan pendanaan dan secara umum tidak terlalu banyak adanya kebutuhan akan pengungkapan publik yang kredibel dan tepat waktu, bila dibandingkan dengan perekonomian yang lebih maju.

Akan tetapi, investor menuntut informasi tentang perusahaan yang bias dipercaya dan tepat waktu di negara berkembang dengan pasar yang baru muncul. Regulator telah merespons tuntutan ini dengan  membuat ketentuan pengungkapan yang lebih kuat, dengan meningkatkan pengawasan dan usaha pelaksanaan mereka.

Bukti empiris praktik pengungkapan di negara-negara dengan pasar yang baru muncul masih terbatas sampai sekarang. Akan tetapi, seperti halnya dengan semua pasar modal negara ini dan perusahaan yang terdaftar ingin meningkatkan kehadiran mereka, peneliti mengembangkan bukti-bukti yang lebih banyak untuk semua kegiatan ini dan bagaimana mereka berbeda dari semua negara berkembang.

    D.      Implikasi Bagi Para Pengguna Laporan Keuangan Dan Para Manajer

Para manajer dari banyak perusahaan terus-menerus sangat dipengaruhi oleh biaya pengungkapan informasi yang bersifat wajib, tingkat pengungkapan wajib maupun sukarela semakin meningkat di seluruh dunia. Manajer di negara-negara yang secara tradisional memiliki pengungkapan rendah harus mempertimbangkan apakah menerapkan kebijakan peningkatan pengungkapan dapat memberikan manfaat dalam jumlah yang signifikan bagi perusahaan mereka. Lagipula, para manajer yang memutuskan untuk memberikan pengungkapan yang lebih banyak dalam bidang-bidang yang dipandang penting oleh para investor dan analis keuangan, seperti pengungkapan segmen dan rekonsiliasi, dapat memperoleh keunggulan kompetitif dari perusahaan lain yang memiliki kebijakan pengungkapan yang ketat.

Konvergensi Akuntansi

Akhir-akhir ini IFRS menjadi hot issue bagi akuntansi, top manajemen perusahaan-perusahaan yang sudah Go Public dan para akademisi serta para auditor yang melakukan auditing terhadap laporan keuangan perusahaan-perusahaan yang sudah menerapkan IFRS tersebut dalam pelaporan keuangannya.

            Di Indonesia sendiri standar akuntansi yang berlaku dan berterima umum adalah PSAK (Pernyataan Standar Akuntansi Keuangan). Standar akuntansi yang ada di Indonesia saat ini belum mengadopsi penuh standar akuntansi international (IFRS). Standar akuntansi yang digunakan di Indonesia masih mengacu pada US GAAP (United Stated Generally Accepted Accounting Standard), namun dalam beberapa pasal sudah dilakukan harmonisasi terhadap IFRS.

            Seiring dengan perkembangan kegiatan ekonomi dan globalisasi menuntut adanya suatau standard akuntansi internasional yang dapat diterima dan dapat dipahami secara internasional, oleh karena itu muncullah suatu standard internasional yaitu IFRS. Dimana tujuan dari konvergensi ini adalah agar informasi keuangan yang dihasilkan dapat diperbandingkan, mempermudah dalam melakukan analisis kompetitif dan hubungan baik dengan pelanggan, supplier, investor dan kreditor. Indonesia sebagai negara yang terus berkembang dan banyaknya transaksi internasional yang dilakukan mengharuskan Indonesia untuk melakukan konvergensi terhadap IFRS. 

              Dengan dibuatnya satu standar akuntansi yang sama dan digunakan oleh seluruh negara akan semakin mendorong investor untuk masuk dalam pasar modal seluruh dunia, hal ini dikarenakan mutu dari laporan keuangan yang dihasilkan memiliki kredibilitas tinggi, pengungkapan yang lebih luas, informasi keuangan yang relevan dan akurat  serta dapat diperbandingkan dan satu lagi yang sangat penting adalah dapat berterima secara internasional dan mudah untuk dipahami.

            Namun dalam prosesnya terdapat beberapa kendala yang dihadapi dalam melakukan konvergensi ke IFRS ini. Mulai dari perbedaan budaya tiap negara, perbedaaan sistem pemerintahan, perbedaan kepentingan antara perusahaan serta tingginya biaya yang dibutuhkan untuk melakukan perubahan prinsip akuntansi.

            Konvergensi PSAK ke IFRS  di Indonesia sendiri akan berlaku efektif dan full adoption pada tahun 2012. Lalu muncul pertanyaan apakah Indonesia sudah siap untuk mengadopsi IFRS?, Kenapa harus dilakukan konvergensi ke IFRS? Dan apa kesulitasn yang dihadapi terhadap adopsi IFRS ini?

PEMBAHASAN

1.      IFRS (International Financial Reporting Standard)

IFRS merupakan standar akuntansi internasional yang diterbitkan oleh International Accounting Standard Board (IASB). Standar akuntansi ini disusun oleh empat organisasi utama dunia yaitu Badan Standar Akuntansi Internasional (IASB), Komisi Masyarakat Eropa (EC), Organisasi Internasional Pasar Modal (IOSOC), dan Federasi Akuntansi Internasional (IFAC).

Natawidnyana (2008) menyatakan bahwa sebagian besar standar yang menjadi bagian dari IFRS sebelumnya merupakan International Accounting Standard (IAS). Kemudian IASB mengadopsi seluruh IAS dan melanjutkan pengembangan standar yang dilakukan.

Secara keseluruhan IFRS mencakup:

a.      International Financial Reporting Standard (IFRS) – standar yang diterbitkan setelah tahun 2001

b.      International Accounting Standard (IAS) – standar yang diterbitkan sebelum tahun 2001

c.       Interpretations yang diterbitkan oleh International Financial Reporting Interpretations Committee  (IFRIC) – setelah tahun 2001

d.      Interpretations yang diterbitkan oleh Standing Interpretations Committe (SIC) – sebelum tahun 2001

Secara garis besar standar akuntansi mengatur 4 hal pokok:

a.      Definisi laporan keuangan atau informasi lain yang berkaitan

Definisi digunakan dalam standar akuntansi untuk menentukan apakah transaksi tertentu harus dicatat dan dikelompokkan ke dalam aktiva, hutang, modal, pendapatan dan biaya.

b.      Pengukuran dan penilaian

Pengukuran dan penilaian digunakan untuk menentukan nilai dari suatu elemen laporan keuangan baik pada saat terjadinya transaksi keuangan maupun pada saat penyajian laporan keuangan.

c.       Pengakuan

Kriteria ini digunakan untuk mengakui elemen laporan keuangan sehingga elemen tersebut dapat disajikan dalam laporan keuangan

d.      Penyajian dan pengungkapan laporan keuangan

Peyajian dan pengungkapan laporan keuangan digunakan menentukan jenis informasi dan bagaimana informasi tersebut disajikan dan diungkapkan dalam laporan keuangan.

2.      Konvergensi IFRS di Indonesia

a.      Perkembangan Standar Akuntansi di Indonesia

1.      Tahun 1973 – 1984: Ikatan Akuntansi Indonesia (IAI) membentuk komite untuk menetapkan standar-standar akuntansi, yang kemudian dikenal dengan Prinsip-Prinsip Akuntansi Indonesia (PAI).

2.      Tahun 1984 – 1994: komite PAI melakukan revisi mendasar PAI 1973 dan kemudian menerbitkan Prinsip Akuntansi Indonesia PAI 1994. Menjelang akhir tahun 1994 Komite Standar Akuntansi memulai suatu revisi besar atas prinsip – prinsip akuntansi Indonesia dengan mengumumkan pernyataan – pernyataan standar akutansi tambahan dan menerbitkan interpretasi atas standar tersebut. Revisi ini menghasilkan 35 peryataan standar akuntansi keuangan, yang sebagian besar adalah hasil harmonisasi dengan IAS yang dikeluarkan oleh IASB.

3.      Tahun 1994 – 2004: perubahan patokan standar keuangan dari US GAAP ke IFRS. Hal ini telah menjadi kebijakan Komite Standar Akuntansi Keuangan untuk menggunakan International Accounting Standards sebagai dasar membangun standar keuangan Indonesia. Pada tahun 1995, IAI melakukan revisi besar untuk menerapkan standar – standar akuntansi baru, IAS mendominasi isi dari standar ini selain US GAAP dan dibuat sendiri.

4.      Tahun 2006 – 2008: dilakukan konvergensi IFRS tahap 1. Sejak tahun 1995 sampai dengan tahun 2010, Standar Akuntansi Keuangan (SAK) terus direvisi secara berkesinambungan, proses revisi ini dilakukan sebanyak enam kali, yakni 1 Oktober 1995, 1 Juni 1999, 1 April 2002, 1 Oktober 2004, 1 Juni 2006, 1 September 2007 dan 1 Juli 2009. Sampai dengan 2008 jumlah IFRS yang diadopsi baru 10 standar.

Roadmap konvergensi IFRS di Indonesia

3.      KENDALA KONVERGENSI PSAK KE DALAM IFRS

a.      Dewan standar kauntansi yang kurang sumberdaya

b.  IFRS berganti terlalu cepat sehingga ketika masih dalam proses adopsi satu standar IFRS dilakukan, pihak IASB sudah dalam proses mengganti IFRS tersebut

c.  Kendala bahasa, karena stiap standar IFRS harus diterjemahkan ke dalam bahasa Indonesia dan seringkali ini tidaklah mudah

d.      Infrastruktur profesi akuntansi yang belum siap

e.      Kesiapan perguruan tinggi dan akuntan pendidik untuk berganti acuan ke IFRS

f.        Support pemerintah terhadap issue konvergensi

4.      MANFAAT KONVERGENSI IFRS

a.      Memudahkan pemahaman atas laporan keuangan dengan Standar Akuntansi Keuangan yang dikenal secara internasional

b.      Meningkatkan arus investasi dlobal melalui transparansi

c.    Menurunkan biaya modal dengan membuka peluang fund raising melalui pasar modal secara global

d.      Menciptakan efisiensi penyusunan laporan keuangan

e.    Meningkatkan kualitas laporan keuangan, dengan antara lain, mengurangi kesempatan untuk melakukan earning management

Disclosure

. REPORTING AND DISCLOSURE

A. DISCLOSURE ACCOUNTING PRACTICES influenced by differences GOVERNANCE FINANCE COMPANY IN ANY STATE

DEVELOPMENT OF DISCLOSURE

Development of the disclosure system is closely associated with the development of accounting systems. Disclosure standards and practices are influenced by financial resources, legal systems, political and economic ties, the level of economic development, education, culture, and other influences. National differences in disclosure is driven largely by differences in corporate governance and finance. In the United States, Britain and other Anglo-American countries, equity markets provided most of the funding that the company needs to be very advanced. In these markets, ownership tends to spread widely among many shareholders and investor protection is emphasized. Institutional investors play an increasingly important role in these countries, demanding financial returns and shareholder value meningkat.Di most other countries (like France, Japan and some emerging market countries), share ownership is still highly concentrated and bank (or the owner and family) has traditionally been a major source of corporate financing. These banks, and the other in obtaining more information about the company’s financial position and activities.

VOLUNTARY DISCLOSURE

Some studies show that managers have incentives to reveal information about the company’s current performance and future time voluntarily. In a recent report, the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) describes a FASB project on business reporting which supports the view that the company will benefit from the capital market by increasing voluntary disclosure. The report outlines how companies can describe and explain its investment potential to investors. A number of rules, such as accounting and disclosure rules, and approval by a third party (such as auditing) can improve the functioning of the market. Accounting rules to try to reduce the ability of manjer in record economic transactions in ways that do not represent the best interests of shareholders. Disclosure rules establish provisions to ensure that shareholders receive timely, complete and accurate.

MANDATORY DISCLOSURE PROVISIONS

Protection of shareholders differ from country to country. Anglo-American countries such as Canada, Britain and the United States to provide protection to shareholders who are widely and strictly enforced. In contrast, the protection to the shareholders received less attention in some other countries like China for example, prohibiting insider trading (trading that involves the inner circle), while weak law enforcement make the enforcement of these rules are almost non-existent.

REPORTING AND DISCLOSURE PRACTICES

Disclosure rules are very different around the world in some ways like the statement of cash flows and changes in equity, related party transactions, segment reporting, the fair value of financial assets and liabilities and earnings per share. In this section attention is focused on:
A. Disclosure of information to see the future “information look to the future” that includes:
(A) the forecast revenue, profit and loss, profit and loss per share (EPS), capital expenditures, and other financial post

(B) information regarding the performance or prospective future economic position that is not too sure when compared with the projected post, fiscal period, and the projected number of
(C) statements of management plans and objectives of future operations.
Most companies in each country presents a disclosure of information about plans and goals manjemen. Conversely fewer companies that disclose prophecy, from the lowest two companies in Japan and the highest 31 companies in the United States. Most forecasts in the U.S. and Germany regarding capital expenditure, not profits and sales.

2. Segment disclosures. Investors and analysts will request information regarding operating results and financial industry segments classified as significant and increasing. Example, financial analysts in the United States has consistently been asked disagregat report data in the form of a much more detailed than they are now. International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) also discussed the highly detailed segment reporting. This report helps the users of financial statements to better understand how the parts of a company affects the whole enterprise.

3. Cash flow statement and fund flow

IFRS and accounting standards in the United States, Britain, and a large number of other countries require the presentation of cash flows.

4. Disclosure of social responsibility

Today the company is required to demonstrate a sense of responsibility to a bunch of so-called interested parties (stakeholders) – employees, customers, suppliers, governments, activist groups, and the general public company

5. Specific disclosures for non-domestic users of financial statements and the accounting principles used

Financial statements may contain specific disclosures to accommodate the users of financial statements nondomestik. Such disclosure is:

1. “Re representation for comfort” to the financial information in currencies nondomestik

2. Repeated presentation of the results and financial position is limited by the two accounting standards.

3. A complete set of financial statements prepared in accordance with accounting standards kesua groups, and some discussion about the differences between the accounting principles that are widely used in the primary financial statements and a few other sets of accounting principles.

CORPORATE GOVERNANCE DISCLOSURES

Corporate governance related to the internal tools used for running and controlling a firm – responsibility, accountability and the relationship between the shareholders, board members and managers are designed to achieve corporate objectives. The problems of corporate governance include the rights and treatment to the shareholders, the board’s responsibilities, disclosure and transparency and the role of the parties concerned. Corporate governance practices has gained the attention of regulators, investors and analysts.

DISCLOSURE AND REPORTING ON INTERNAL BUSINESS

World Wide Web is increasingly being used as channels of information dissemination, where the print media now plays a secondary role. Business Reporting Language (Extensible Business Reporting Language – XBRL) is an early stage of financial reporting revolution. This computer language is built into almost all software for accounting and financial reporting to be issued in the future, and most users do not need to learn how to cultivate it so that it can directly enjoy the benefits.

DISCLOSURE REPORTS ANNUAL MARKET IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

Disclosure of the company’s annual report on emerging market countries are generally less extensive and less credible than the reporting companies in developed countries. For example, the disclosure of which is insufficient and misleading and neglected consumer protection cited as the cause of the East Asian financial crisis in 1997. Low level of disclosure in emerging market countries is consistent with the system of corporate governance and finance in these countries. Less developed equity markets, banks and internal parties such as family groups distribute most  needs and generally not too much of a need for public disclosure of credible and timely manner, when compared with the more advanced economies.

IMPLICATIONS FOR USERS AND FINANCIAL MANAGERS

The managers of many companies are constantly heavily influenced by the cost of mandatory disclosure, the level of mandatory and voluntary disclosure is increasing worldwide. Managers in countries that traditionally have low disclosure should consider whether it operates a policy of disclosure may provide significant benefits in the amount of their company. Moreover, the managers who decided to provide more disclosure in areas considered important by investors and financial analysts, such as disclosure of segment and reconciliation, can gain competitive advantage from another company that has a strict disclosure policy.

B. IMPORTANT ISSUES-ISSUES AFFECTING DECISION MAKING DISCLOSURE manajamen FOR DECISION

BASIC CONCEPTS MANAGEMENT DECISION

Management needs the information as a basis for their decision making. Information systems have an important role in providing inf for all levels of management. Tiap2 activities and different management decisions require different information. By it’s kana interchangeable remedy which provides information relevant and useful to management, the information system developers hrs understand first activities undertaken by management and the type of decision.

A. TYPE OF MANAGEMENT

Management activities associated with its level in the organization is divided into 3 sections:
1. Strategic planning

2. Control

3. Control of operations

B. TYPE MANAGEMENT DECISION

Decision-making (Decision making) is in the selection of alternative management actions to achieve the target.

Decision is divided into 3 types:

1. Programmatic decisions / decision

2. Decision half programmed / semi-structured

3. Decisions are not programmed / unstructured

C. TYPE OF INFORMATION

Role of information systems now ill just as the collection of data and process them into information such as financial laporan2, but who have a more important role in providing information for management to fungsi2 planning, alokasi2 resources, measurement and control. Laporan2 of information systems to provide information to management about permasalahan2 is happening within the organization to be the proof is useful in determining which action is taken. Information system provides three different types of information:

1. Information data collection (Scorekeeping information)

2. Information Briefing attention (attention directing information)

3. Troubleshooting information (Problem Solving information)

D. CHARACTERISTICS OF INFORMATION

To support the decision to be made by management, then management needs information is useful. To tiap2 levels of management with which different activities, different information needs also vary, the characteristics of this information include:

1. Information Density

2. Wide Information

3. Frequency information

4. Time Information

5. Access to Information

6. Sources of Information

E. THE ROLE OF MANAGEMENT, by Henry Mintzberg

1. The Role of Interpersonal

2. Informational role

3. Decisional role

F. DECISION PHASE

Simon (1960) introduced the four activities in the decision making process:
1. Intelligence: Gathering information to identify the problem.

2. Design: Phase alternatif2 design solutions in terms of problem solving.

3. Choice: Stage alternatif2 choose from the solution of which is provided.

4. Implementation: Phase implement the decision and report the results.

C. PURPOSE OF DISCLOSURE ACCOUNTING IN EQUITY MARKETS

In a competitive economy, the disclosure is a means to channel coorperation accountability to capital providers (investors) and to easy allocation of resources to their most productive use. coorperation a need to attract capital in a very large amount to finance the production and distribution activities are extensive. Therefore internal expanse is highly dependent on external capital invested by the investor on a coorperation, In return, an investor requires disclosure in which investors can assess the quality of their stock to cultivate.

Conceptual link between disclosure and cost of capital of the theory of investment behavior under conditions of uncertainty, namely:

1. In a world of uncertainty, investors look at returns on investment securities as money received as a consequence of ownership

2. Because of the uncertainty of return is viewed in a probabilistic sense.

3. Investors use a number of different measures to quantify the expected results of a security.

4. Investors prefer a high return rate for a certain risk level or vice versa.

5. The value of a security is positively related to the flow of expected results and inversely related to the risks associated with the refund.

6. Thus, disclosure of the company will increase the probability distribution of outcomes expected by investors by reducing the uncertainty associated with the refund. So will improve performance (performance of the company) in the eyes of investors that lure investors to invest on a larger similar securities so as to reduce the cost of capital

D. ASPECTS OF DISTINCTION noted that financial CORPORATE PRACTICE

In deciding what information will be reported, the usual practice is to provide sufficient information for judgments and decisions affecting the users. This principle is often referred to as full disclosure (full disclosure), recognizes that the nature and amount of information included in financial statements reflect a series of trade off assessments. This trade off between (1) the need to disclose in sufficient detail the things that will affect the decisions of users, with (2) the need to condense the presentation of information in order to be understood. In addition, preparation of financial statements must also take into account the cost of manufacture and use of financial statements (Kieso and Weygandt, 2002).

In case of information asymmetry is high, then the users of financial statements do not have enough information to know whether the financial statements, in particular earnings have been manipulated. Microstructure market theory says that one of the adverse selection problem faced by decision makers is the possibility of firm-specific information that the material not disclosed to the public (Yanivi, 2003). Capital market regulators to reduce this information asymmetry by making the minimum requirement for disclosure needs to be done by the companies listed on stock exchanges. One such regulation is the decision of the Capital Market Supervisory Board chairman KEP-06/PM/2000 number of guidelines for financial statement presentation. Greenstein and Sami (1994) in Yanivi (2003) examined and found that the obligation of the Securities Exchange Committee (SEC) regarding the disclosure of public enterprise segment in the U.S. stock market has reduced the information asymmetry is indicated by a decrease in bid-ask spread of the company.
Level of disclosure in the financial statements will help users of financial statements to understand the content and the numbers reported in financial statements. There are three levels of disclosure that is full disclosure, disclosure is reasonable, and adequate disclosure. Refers to the full disclosure of all information provided by the company, well-informed financial and nonfinancial information. Full disclosure not only include the financial statements but also includes information provided in the management letter, company prospect, and so on. Adequate disclosure is the disclosure required by applicable accounting standards. While the disclosure is reasonably adequate disclosure coupled with other information that could affect the fairness of financial statements such as contingencies, commitments and so forth.

Imhoff and Thomas (1994) in Yanivi (2003) proved that the quality rating of the analysis was positively related to conservatism in the estimation and selection of accounting methods, and a number of detailed disclosures on the reported figures. The implications of this discovery is a company that is more conservative in making estimates and choose the method of accounting (or management company with a level of income / low income smoothing) will reveal more information. If companies choose to report conservative earnings management / low earnings smoothing. Then it shows a negative relationship between income smoothing the level of disclosure.

5. FOREIGN CURRENCY TRANSLATION

 Difference between the translation and conversion of foreign currency.

Translation is a change in monetary units, as well as a balance sheet presented are expressed in British pounds back into the U.S. dollar equivalent value. There is no physical exchange that occurred, and no related transactions that have occurred as it carried out the conversion.
Balances in foreign currencies are translated into domestic currency equivalent value based on the foreign exchange rate is the price of one unit of a currency expressed in another currency. State’s major trading currencies are bought and sold in global markets. With linked via a sophisticated telecommunications network, market participants include banks and other currency intermediaries, businesses, individuals and professional traders. By providing a place for the buyer and the seller’s currency, the foreign exchange market to facilitate the international transfer payments (eg, from importers to exporters), allow for international sale or purchase on credit (eg, a bank letter of credit that allows the goods delivered to the buyer unknown prior to payment), and providing tools for individuals or businesses to protect themselves from the risk of the currency is unstable.
Foreign currency transactions occur on the spot market, forward, or swap. Currency bought or sold on the spot generally must be sent as soon as possible, ie within 2 working days. Spot market exchange rate is influenced by many factors, including differences in inflation rates between countries, differences in national interest and expectations of the future exchange rate. Transaction on forward markets is an agreement to exchange one currency for a certain amount into another currency at a future date. Quotations on forward markets is expressed by the discount or premium of the spot rate.

Swap transaction involves the purchase of spot and forward sales or spot sales or purchases forward, on a currency simultaneously. Investors often make use of swap transactions to take advantage of interest rates higher in a foreign country, the same opportunity to protect themselves against unfavorable movements of the exchange rate of foreign exchange. In terms of foreign currency translation. Translation is the translation of foreign currency.

Translation is the exchange of foreign currency.

1. Translation occurs when the subsidiary company has been significant, and there is MNC (Multy National Corporete)

2. Translational change in different units into units of money.

3. Translation of the play rate.

Translation methods can be classified into two types of methods that use a single exchange rate for the present re-translation of foreign currency balances to the equivalent value in domestic currency or a method that uses a variety of rates.

1. Methods Single Currency

This method has long been popular in Europe, applying the exchange rate, the current exchange rate and the closing exchange rate, for all assets and liabilities lancer. Revenues and expenses denominated in foreign currencies are generally translated using the exchange rate prevailing at the time the posts are recognized. However, to facilitate these items are generally translated using the weighted average exchange rates are appropriate for the period. The financial statements of a foreign operation has its own reporting domicile, local currency environment in which the foreign affiliate companies do business. An asset or liability denominated in foreign currency is said to face foreign exchange risk if the equivalent in the currency used to translate the asset or liability.
2. Multiple methods of exchange rate

The method combines Multiple Currency exchange rate exchange rate historically and now in the process of translation.

3. Now the method-Nonkini

Based on the Method of Non-Now-Now, lancer current assets and liabilities of foreign subsidiaries are translated into the reporting currency of its parent company based on the exchange now. Assets and liabilities are translated lancer historical rates of exchange. Items of income statement (except for depreciation and amortization) are translated based on the average rate prevailing in each month of operation, or based on a weighted average over the entire reporting period. Depreciation and amortization are translated based on the historical exchange rate recorded saaat assets acquired. However, this method does not consider the economic element. Using year-end exchange rate to translate the lancer assets implies that cash, receivables, and inventory in foreign currencies are equally at risk of exchange rate.

4. Monetary-nonmonetary method

Non-monetary method Monetary also use the balance sheet classification scheme fatherly determine the appropriate exchange rate translation. Monetary assets and liabilities are translated based on the exchange rate now. Items of non-monetary assets, long-term investment, and stock investors are translated using historical exchange rates. Items of income statements are translated using a procedure similar to that described for the concept of non-present now.
5. Temporal method

By using the temporal method, tranlasi currency conversion is a process of re-measurement or presentation of a certain value. This method does not change the attributes of an item being measured, but only change the unit of measurement. Translation of these balances in foreign currency-denominated causes repeated measurements such items but not the actual assessment. Under U.S. GAAP, measured by the amount of cash on hand at the balance sheet date. Receivables and liabilities are stated at amounts expected to be received or paid at maturity.

Advantages and disadvantages of foreign currency translation.

Accounting treatments led to international adjustments are as diverse as translation procedures behind them. Therefore, solutions that make sense to the problem of how to treat the “profit or loss” of this translation is needed. Approaches for accounting for translational adjustment of the approach initiated deferral (delay) to an approach that does not require a delay at all, with treatments of hybrid between the two. Major deferal. income translation adjustments in the profit goes to the general public was opposed on the grounds that the adjustments are just a product of the process of re-presentation. Namely, the changes in the domestic currency equivalent of the net assets of overseas subsidiaries ‘unrealized’, has no effect on the local currency cash flows generated by overseas entities that may be re-invested or paid back to the parent company. Incorporate such adjustments in current earnings, thus, be misleading. In these situations, must be accumulated translation adjustments separately as part of consolidated equity. Even so, the deferral approach, possibly contested on the grounds that the exchange rate does not return to its original state by itself. Even if that happens, the adjustment-penyesuaiati deferral or the transaction will be based on the predictions of the exchange rate, the efforts of the most difficult in practice. Situations may arise where the operating results have misstated because of forecasting errors. For some, delay or loss of translational advantage over the behavior of exchange rate changes, ie, exchange rate changes historical facts and user- report served well if the effects of exchange rate fluctuations are recorded when these effects arise. According to FAS No. 8 (paragraph 199), “Currency is always fluctuating; accounting should not give the impression that the exchange rate is stable”.

Deferral and amortization. Some observers like the delays and gains and losses mengamortisasikan translation adjustments during the age of balance sheet items are concerned. Mark against the dollar appreciation between the date of the consolidation of translational yield losses. Based on the assumption that the cost of the asset including the sacrifices necessary to reduce and remove the associated liabilities, losses will be treated as a translation of part of the cost of the relevant asset and amortized into expense over the asset Such age.

No deferral. The third choice in accounting for translation gains and losses is to recognize the loss or gain in the income statement immediately. Delays of any kind is considered false and misleading. In addition, the criteria for a delay was considered impossible to implement and internally inconsistent. Thus, the traditional approach is to recognize losses immediately but only recognizes gains these gains have been realized so far. Although conservative, delays translational advantage solely because of the advantages “reject” that exchange rate changes have occurred.

Enter translation gains and losses in current earnings, unfortunately, means involving random elements in the profits that could result in significant earnings volatility every time the exchange rate change. In addition, include gains and losses “on paper” similar to the reported earnings to mislead readers of financial statements, because the correlation, this adjustment does not always provide information that matches the expected economic impact of exchange rate changes on cash flows of the company.

Effect of foreign currency translation method on the financial statements.

The following third exchange rate used during the translation of balances in foreign currencies into their domestic currency. First, this exchange is the exchange rate at the date of the financial statements. Second, the historical exchange rate is the exchange rate at the time an asset is denominated in foreign currency was first acquired, or when a foreign currency liabilities in the first place. Finally, the average rate is a simple average or weighted exchange rate or exchange rate is now historical. Influence the use of historical exchange rate compared to the exchange rate is now on the financial statements when used as koofisien foreign currency translation. Historical exchange rate generally maintain the initial cost is equivalent to an item in a foreign currency denominated in domestic currency reports.

1. Single Rate Method

Based on this translational approach, the financial statements of foreign operations, which are considered by the parent company as an autonomous entity, has the reporting of their own domicile. This is a local accounting environment where foreign affiliates are mentraksaksikan his business affairs. To maintain the “flavor” of the local currency reports, a way must be found so that translation can be implemented with minimal distortion. The best way is the use of the method of exchange rate policies.

Since all financial reports of foreign exchange is actually multiplied by a konstansta, this translation method to maintain its financial results and the original relation (eg financial ratios) in the consolidated statements of individual entities that are consolidated. Only the form of overseas estimates, not the essence, the change in the method of exchange rate policies. Although interesting and conceptually simple, the method of exchange rate policies were blamed by some people because it undermines the basic purpose of the consolidated financial statements, that is because it presents, for the benefit of shareholders of the parent company, operating results and financial position of the parent company and firms from the perspective of children the single currency. maintain the parent company’s reporting currency as the unit of measurement. In the prevailing exchange rate method, the results will reflect the consolidation of perspekfif-exchange perspective of each country where companies are children. For example, if an asset dip = roleh an overseas subsidiary company for when the rate was 1.000 VA VA 1 = $ 1, then from the perspective of historical cost dollars is $ 1,000; from the perspective of local currency is also $ 1000. If the exchange rate changed to VA 5 = $ 1, the historical cost of those assets from the perspective of the dollar (translas’ historical cost) remains $ 1,000. If the local currency will be retained as the unit of measurement, will be expressed nifai assets of $ 200 (exchange rate translation effect). Rate method applies also to blame because it assumes that all assets are influenced by local-currency exchange rate risk (ie, assuming that the fluctuations in the domestic currency equivalent, which is caused by fluctuations translational running, an indicator of changes in the intrinsic value of those assets). Hat is rarely true because the value of inventory and fixed assets in foreign countries are generally supported by local inflation.

2. Multiple Rate Methods

Methods of combining multiple exchange rate exchange rate historically runs and in the process of translation. 3 Such methods are discussed below. Force-historical method. Based on the true-historical approach, which is popular in the U.S. and other places before the year 1976, current assets and current liabilities of a subsidiary abroad are translated into the reporting currency using the exchange rate of its parent company applies. Assets and liabilities are non-smooth translated with historical rates. Items of income statement, except for depreciation and amortization, are translated at the exchange rate on average each month of operation or on the basis of the weighted average of the entire period to be reported. Depreciation and amortization are translated using historical exchange rates prevailing at the time of the relevant asset is obtained. This methodology is, unfortunately, has some drawbacks. For example, this method is less choose a conceptual justification. Existing definitions of assets and liabilities and non-current classification does not explain why such a manner which will determine the exchange rate used in the process transiasi. Monetary-nonmonetary method. As with any true-historical method, the method moniter using pattern-classification of non-monetary balance sheet to determine the appropriate exchange rate translation. Due to monetary items in cash settled; usage rate applicable to translate the items of foreign exchange domestic currency equivalent yield that reflects the realizable value or value of the solution. Temporal method according to the temporal approach, translational currency conversion is a process of measurement (ie, repeated presentation of a particular value). Therefore, this method can not be used to change the attributes of an item that is being measured; this method can only change the unit of measurement. Balance of foreign currency translation, for example, just change the (restate) the denomination of inventory. not the actual assessment. In U.S. GAAP, assets are measured based on jumiah cash on hand at the balance sheet date. Receivables and payables expressed in a number expected to be received or paid at maturity. Liabilities and other assets are measured at the prevailing price when the item is acquired or item ¬ occurs (historical price). Even so, some of which are measured by the prices prevailing at the date of financial statements (the price goes), such as inventory under the rules of cost or market. In short, there is a time dimension associated with the values of money ini.Menurut Lorensen, the best way to maintain the accounting bases are used to measure items of foreign exchange is to translate the foreign currency amount the exchange rate prevailing on the date of measurement money takes place overseas. Temporal principle thus stated that money, receivables, and payables are measured at the promised amount should be translated using the exchange rates prevailing at balance sheet date. Assets and liabilities are measured at the price of money should be translated using the exchange rates prevailing on the date with respect to the price of money. Evaluation and selection of foreign currency translation method.

Method of currency conversion

Known around the world at least 4 different types of currency conversion methods, namely:

A. Current methods / Non-current

This method is the oldest method of currency conversion methods. With this method, all assets and liabilities of the branches lancer converted in the currency of the company’s country of origin at current exchange rates, the exchange rate at the balance sheet drawn up. Being assets and noncurrent liabilities (noncurrent), such as depreciation cost, converted at the historical exchange rate, the exchange rate at the time when the asset acquired or liability occurs. Therefore, branches of overseas companies which have a positive working capital valued in local currency will increase the risk of loss (translation loss) due to the devaluation of the method of current / non current. Instead of working capital turns negative when assessed in the local currency means that there are advantages (translation gain) due to revaluation of the method. However, this method does not consider the economic element. Using year-end exchange rate to translate current assets implies that cash, receivables, and inventory in a foreign currency are both facing exchange rate risk. This is certainly not appropriate. In contrast, translation of long-term debt based on historical exchange rates shift the influence of fluctuating currency into the year of completion.
2. Methods Monetary / non-monetary

Monetary assets (mainly cash, marketable securities, accounts receivable, and long-term receivables) and liabilities (especially debt and long-term debt) converted at current exchange rate. Being non-monetary items, such as the stock of goods, fixed assets and long-term investment, converted at the historical exchange rate. The posts in the profit / loss is converted to the average rate during the period, except for the postal receipts and the costs associated with non-monetary assets and liabilities. Depreciation costs and cost of sales is converted at the rate equal to the balance sheet heading. As a result, cost of sales could have been converted to a different exchange rate with the rate used to convert sales. It should be noted that the monetary-nonmonetary method depends on the balance sheet classification scheme for determining the appropriate exchange rate translation. This can produce inaccurate results. This method will also distort the profit margin for sales compare based on price and exchange rate translation is now at a cost of sales are measured at cost and historical exchange rate translation.

3. Temporal method

By using the temporal method, currency translation is a process of re-conversion of the measurement or presentation of a certain value. The method does not change the attributes of an item being measured, just change the unit of measurement. Translation of these balances in foreign currency re-denomination of measurement causes the outposts, but not the actual assessment.
This method is a modification of the method of monetary / non monetary. The difference, in the method of monetary / non monetary, stock (inventory) is always converted to the historical exchange rate. Being the temporal method, inventory is generally converted to the historical exchange rate, but may be converted at current exchange rates when the inventory is recorded in the balance sheet with its market value. Theoretically, the temporal method evalusai more emphasis on cost (historical or market). The posts in the profit / loss is generally converted to the average rate in the reporting period. Moderate cost of sales, installment debt, and depreciation related to the balance sheet items are converted at the exchange rate histories (rates in the past).
4. Current rate method

This method is the easiest method because all of the post balance sheet and profit / loss is converted at current exchange rates. This method is recommended by the Institute of Accountants England, Scotland, and Wales, and is widely used by British companies. With this method, when assets exceed liabilities denominated in foreign currency in foreign exchange, a devalusai will result in losses. Variations of this method is to convert all assets and liabilities, except for net fixed assets are stated at current exchange rates. Transactions in foreign currency The main characteristic of a particular foreign currency transactions are finish influenced in a foreign currency. Thus, transactions in foreign currency occurs when a company buys or sells goods to the payments made in a foreign currency or when companies borrow or lend in foreign currencies. A foreign currency transactions can be denominated in one currency, but the measured or recorded in other currencies. To understand why this is happening, first term functional currency. Functional currency of a company is defined as the currency of the primary economic environment in which firms operate and generate cash flow. If a foreign subsidiary operations relative stand-alone and integrated in a foreign country (ie sutau subsidiaries that produce products for local distribution), will generally produce and spend money in local currency (countries of residence). Thus the local currency (eg euros for children i a U.S. company located in Belgium) is the functional currency. To illustrate the difference between a transaction that is denominated in a currency, but measured in other currencies, eg, a U.S. subsidiary in Hong Kong to buy stock of merchandise from the People’s Republic of China paid i. Subsidiary’s functional currency is U.S. dollars. In this case, the subsidiary will measure foreign currency transactions are denominated in renmimbi into U.S. dollars, the currency used in the record book. From the standpoint of the parent companies, subsidiaries liabilities denominated i, but measured in U.S. dollar functional currency, for the purposes of consolidation

Foreign currency translation relationship with inflation

The use of the exchange rate is now to translate the cost of non-monetary assets are located in inflation environment will ultimately lead to an equivalent value in domestic currency is much lower than the initial baseline measurement. At the same time, earnings will be much larger translated with respect to load depresisasi which is also lower. The translation as it can be more easily mislead readers as to give information to the reader. Assessment of the lower dollar typically lower earnings power actual of foreign assets which are supported by local inflation and the ratio of return on investment that affected inflation in a foreign operation may create false expectations on future profits. FASB rejected before the inflation adjustment process of translation, because the adjustment is not inconsistent with the historical cost basis of the assessment framework used in the basic financial statements in the U.S.. As a solution FAS No. 52 requires the use of the U.S. dollar as the functional currency for those residing overseas operations with hyperinflation environment. This procedure will maintain a constant value of the dollar equivalent of foreign currency assets, because these assets will be translated according to the historical rate. The imposition of losses on fixed assets in the translation of foreign currency to equity shareholders will cause a significant effect on financial ratios. Foreign currency translation problem can not be separated from the problem of accounting for foreign inflation.

6. FINANCIAL REPORTING AND PRICE CHANGES

Understand why the financial report has the potential to mislead during the period of price changes.
This measurement inaccuracies distort the financial projections based on historical time series of data, the budget is the basis of performance measurement, performance data can not isolate the effect of inflation that can not be controlled. While earnings are valued more in turn will lead to: Increase the proportion of tax, demand more dividends than shareholders, salaries and demand higher wages than workers, and adverse actions of the host country (such as taxation of very large gains. Knowing the term – inflation accounting terms and understand the effect of price adjustments to financial statements.

To understand the notion of price changes (changing prices), the following terms in use:

A general price changes occur when the average price of all goods and services in an economy subject to change. Price increases are collectively known as inflation (inflation), while the price declines known as deflation (deflation). Specific price changes refers to changes in the price of goods or services which are caused by changes in demand and supply. A stable price level becomes a national priority for many countries around the world. Although the price changes occur throughout the world, the influence of business and financial reporting varies from one country to another.
Determine differences in current cost accounting model and the conventional.

In general, the conventional accounting, financial statements are presented based on the historical value that assumes that hargaharga (monetary unit) is stable. Conventional accounting does not recognize the changes in general price levels or changes in the level of rates. As a consequence, if there is a change in purchasing power as inflation period, the historical financial statements is economically irrelevant. In this period generally scored higher revenues while fixed assets valued lower. Actually, there are several methods of accounting on the effect of price changes, such as accounting fixed price, current value accounting, and general price level accounting. General price level accounting restatement will hold the components of financial statements into dollars at the same level of purchasing power, but did not change the accounting principles used in accounting based on the value historis.Pada practice, the controversy concerning the relevance of the use of price level accounting public still continues to this day. Some of the arguments that support or reject the application of the general price level accounting will be presented in this article. Similarly, the results of two studies on the effects of application of the general price level accounting on the financial statements will be compared to see whether the accounting adjustments based on the general price level is required.

Explain the differences of inflation accounting in the U.S., Britain, and Brazil.

In the U.S., the advantages and disadvantages of monetary items are determined by me restate, in constant dollars, from the beginning and ending balances, or transactions in, all assets and liabilities (including long-term debt). The results are intended to provide a useful basis for assessing the performance of companies in maintaining the general purchasing power of investors (FAS No. 89, paragraphs 65-66). Gains or losses are not included in profit but are disclosed in a separate stand-alone item. This treatment implies that the FASB looked at the advantages and disadvantages in the IEM-monetary item is different in nature with other spiders.

In the UK, gains and losses on monetary items are separated into monetary working capital adjustment and geraing. The second number is associated with the following changes in the price level is given (SSAP NO. 16 paragraphs 11-13) / when sales on credit, working capital tied company (in a sense, corporate finance financial changes in the replacement cost of inventory) to accounts receivable associated billed. Conversely, when stocks and other supplies purchased on credit, the specific price changes related to these items are basically financed by the supplier during the crediting period. So that the working capital of the buyers are free to use for other purposes. Because these phenomena are the same and is seen as an extension of adjusting the running costs of sales to generate operating profit has been adjusted.

In Brazil, do not adjust the current assets and current liabilities are explicitly because the amounts are expressed in the running. Adjustments arising from calculating the net value of assets and capital that have been permanently adjusted to price levels represent a gain or loss in the general purchasing power of working capital financing with debt or equity. Adjustment of permanent assets in excess of capital adjustment to reflect the portion of assets financed with debt permanently, resulting in a gain purchasing power. Instead, the adjustment of capital assets is greater than the permanent adjustment shows the portion of working capital financed by capital. For the capital portion is recognized the loss of purchasing power during inflationary periods.

Understanding of financial reporting in hyperinflation economy.

This statement does not set at a certain level of inflation is considered hyperinflation. Consideration is required in determining when restatement of financial statements need to be done in accordance with this statement. Characteristics of the economic environment of a country which is an indication that the country is experiencing hyperinflation, among others: (a) inhabitants prefer to store their wealth in the form of non-monetary assets or in a foreign currency is relatively stable. Amount of local currency held immediately invested to maintain purchasing power; (b) the population consider the monetary amount is not in the local currency but in foreign currencies are relatively stable. The prices may dikuotasikan in foreign currency; (c) the prevailing price in the sales and purchases on credit is determined by inserting a factor expected loss of purchasing power during the credit period, even if the short loan period, (d) interest rates, wages and prices associated with the price index, and (e) the cumulative inflation rate over three years approaches or exceeds 100%. All entities that prepare financial statements in the currency of the same hyper-inflation economies are encouraged to apply this statement from the same date. However, this statement is applied to the financial statements of each entity since the beginning of the reporting period when the entity identifies the existence of hyperinflation in the country whose currency is used by such entities to prepare financial statements.

Knowing whether a constant dollar or current cost is better to measure the effects of inflation.

Proponents of historical cost model of constant purchasing power of the opinion that the cost model now violates the basic framework of the historical cost because it is based on the initial acquisition cost, the model is also based on a hypothetical cost estimates and therefore too subjective and difficult to put into practice. Ignoring changes in general purchasing power of money led to comparisons between periods is also not difficult to interpret and weigh the advantages and disadvantages of the ownership of monetary items such as debt. In the present model of adjustment costs, the business is not affected by inflation ,but more influenced by the rising costs of special operations and fixed asset expenditures.

Model of constant purchasing power of combining the characteristics of the current cost model of constant purchasing power historical cost and current cost models.

The basic framework of this mixture increases recognize the present value of assets as the advantages of wealth, and thus allow for comparison between present income and earnings in the previous period. Companies considered it would be better only if the asset increases greater than inflation. Monetary gains or losses, are largely ignored in current cost models, is part of the measurement.

Definition of a double dip (double dip) and explains how to handle.

In Hall’s point of view, resembles a double-dip recession is punctuated by sustained periods of growth, followed by a long decline in the economy.

PERPAJAKAN INTERNASIONAL

Masing-masing negara berhak untuk menentukan pajak dalam batas kenegaraannya yang mengakibatkan perbedaan perpajakan di tiap-tiap negara, selain juga disebabkan perbedaan budaya dan pemaksaan pajak. Perbedaan tersebut meliputi perbedaan dalam penentuan pajak dan penentuan biaya.
Keseimbangan dan netralitas
Prinsip equity menyatakan dalam kondisi sama pembayar pajak hendaknya dibebankan pajak yang sama sedang netrality menyatakan pengaruh pajak hendaknya tidak memiliki imbas dalam pengambilan keputusan bisnis.
Sumber pendapatan
Sumber pendapatan dikelompokkan dalam dua kelas yaitu sumber pendapatan dalam negeri dan luar negeri. Sumber pendapatan luar negeri adalah hasil ekspor barang dan jasa termasuk dari cabang di luar negeri dan dikenai pajak pada saat pendapatan diakui. Pajak cabang LN dapat dikenakan dengan menggunakan dua metode yaitu pendekatan teritorial dan worldwide. Pendekatan teritorial berprinsip pajak dikenakan di negara asal di mana pendapatan di dapat. Pendekatan worldwide dikenakan baik pada penghasilan dalam maupun luar negeri (pajak berganda).
Penentuan biaya
Penentuan biaya berpengaruh pada besar pajak. Jika R dan D dikapitalisasi maka pajak penghasilan akan berlangsung selama masa pengakuan nilai sampai habis dalam penghapusannya. Jika diperlakukan sebagai biaya hanya berpengaruh pada periode tertentu sehingga berdampak pada pajak langsung. Perbedaan penentuan umur aset akan menentukan besar biaya. Aset didepresiasi lebih pendek berakibat pada biaya menjadi lebih besar dan pajak lebih kecil.
Tipe-tipe pajak
1. Corporate Income Tax, dua pendekatan yang digunakan sistem klasik yaitu pajak dikenakan jika penghasilan sudah diterima dan dicatat subyek pajak. Dan sistem integral yaitu mengeliminasi pajak berganda lewat dua metode yakni split rate dan imputansi.
2. With Holding Tax, penghasilan yang dihasilkan perusahaan anak di LN dikenakan pajak negara itu, sedang dividen yang dikirim ke perusahaan dikenakan pajak negara tempat perusahaan induk berada.
3. Indirect Tax, pajak tidak langsung dikenal sebagai pajak pertambahan nilai. Konsep mendasari adalah bahwa pajak dikenakan pada tiap tahap produksi. Pertambahan nilai didapat dari penghasilan barang dikurang nilai input, tetapi PPn bukan pajak penjualan.
Penghindaran pajak berganda
Permasalahan pengenaan pajak terhadap anak perusahaan di LN adalah kemungkinan terjadi pengenaan pajak ganda yaitu saat penghasilan diakui dikenai pajak nnegara tersebut dan dikenai pajak negara perusahaan induk saat penghasillan diakui oleh perusahaan induk.penghindaran pajak dapat menggunakan metode :
1. Kredit pajak, perusahaan dapat mengurangi beban pajak dengan dollar for dollar basis.
2. Traktat pajak, perbedaan filosofi pembebanan pajak menimbulkan treaty untuk meminimisasi pajak berganda, melindungi hak amsing-masing negara dalam memungut pajak dan menyediakan acuan untuk memutuskan suatu masalah.
Perpajakan USA untuk sumber pendapatan luar negeri
Pendapatan dibagi dua :
1. Pendapatan dari impor dan ekspor barang jasa perusahaan induk
2. Pendapatan dari cabang di luar negeri
Prinsip terkait adalah prinsip penangguhan dan prinsip kredit pajak.
Konsep Tax Haven, ialah tempat orang asing menerima pendapatan atau aset tanpa membayar tarif pajak tinggi.
Controlled Foreign Corporation, perusahaan USA dapat memilih untuk memproduksi, menjual melalui perusahaan anak di LN.
Pendapatan Cabang, hukum pajak di USA memiliki qualified business unit yang dibagi dua bagian yaitu penghasilan didistribusikan ke kantor pusat dan penghasilan ditahan di LN tempat QBU berada.
Insentif Pajak
1. Insentif untuk menarik eksportir agar ekspor dapat bersaing di LN
2. Insentif bagi investor asing agar menanamkan modal karena ada keringanan pajak.
3. Insentif lain adalah zero rate namun bukan berarti tak dikenai pajak. Jika sektor telah kompetitif maka tarif dinaikkan.
Perusahaan penjualan luar negeri
Foreign sales corporation harus memenuhi tuntutan :
1. Berbentuk korporasi dan memiliki kantor pusat di LN
2. Perusahaan secara substantif ekonomis bukan hanya legal
3. Memiliki min.25 pemegang saham
4. Ekspor dilakukan di luar USA

Perencanaan pajak internasional
Ekspor, FSC memberi kesempatan dan menyediakan keuntungan pajak. Jika perusahaan menentukan lisesnsi untuk teknologi LN harus memperhatikan with holding tax dan tax treaty.
Cabang, kerugian umum terjadi pada tahun pertama dan digunakan perusahaan induk untuk mengurangi beban pajak.
Perusahaan anak, keuntungan anak perusahaan belum dikenakan pajak sebelum dibagikan dalam bentuk pendapatan ke perusahaan induk tapi kerugian tak dapat dikompensasi ke perusahaan induk.
Lokasi untuk operasi LN, berhubungan dengan insentif pajak, tarif pajak, dan tax treaty.

Sumber:

http://andinurhasanah.wordpress.com/2013/05/15/bab5-pelaporan-dan-pengungkapan/

 http://foindonesia.blogspot.com/2011/04/konvergensi-ifrs-di-indonesia.html

http://kartikautami27.blogspot.com/2011/03/perpajakan-internasional.html

http://biebuble.wordpress.com/2012/04/08/disclosure/